Victim, Madama and Revolutionary: The Characterizations and Roles of the Ethiopian Woman Under Fascist Italy I. Introduction The treatment of Ethiopian women under Fascist Italy during the colonization of Ethiopia (1922-1941) was driven by various stereotypes that often times were in contrast to each other, yet worked to help Italian men justify their treatment of these women. On one hand, because Ethiopian women belonged to a so-called "inferior people," Italians classified them as ugly, savage, and degenerate, whose beauty and culture could not compare with that of supposedly superior Italian women. On the other hand, despite Benito Mussolini's racist rhetoric which classified Ethiopians as a savage and unattractive people, Ethiopian women were nonetheless renowned for their beauty and prized for their exoticism. Popular belief of the day held that Ethiopian women were uncontrollable, shameless temptresses whose potent sexuality would lure "helpless" Italian men into affairs with them, as well as away from "virtuous" Italian women (whose moral fiber, as well as beauty, were allegedly greater than African women's). As a result, Italians were able to justify their violence against the Ethiopian people, as well as the sexual exploitation of Ethiopian women. Rape and adulterous affairs were not uncommon, and often times, went hand-in-hand. During this period, the most profitable work an Ethiopian woman could find was that of a prostitute; a lucrative practice for any woman who chose it as a profession, as Italian men frequented Ethiopian brothels constantly. However, despite many historical accounts portraying the Ethiopian woman as the unfortunate victim of Italian colonization, her role was more complex than simply that of an innocent bystander who was emotionally and sexually terrorized by Italian men. Though it is true that numerous racist and fetishist stereotypes about Ethiopian women which pervaded Italian society reduced many women to little more than the sexual slaves of their colonizers, there were numerous signs of resistance among many these women. Far from idly letting their country be colonized, many Ethiopian women were active participants in the resistance against the Italians. While many women were indeed raped and brazenly used by Italian men, not all of them met such tragedy; a good number of them found happy marriages with Italian husbands. Clearly, though unfortunately true that Ethiopian women were indeed victims of the Italians' brutal colonization, their role in Italy's history and the history of their own country contrasts greatly with the stereotypes of the day held by many Italians (and indeed, many historians), and is far more complicated than simply that of a prostitute, mistress, or servant. II. The Savage and the Siren: Characterizations of Ethiopian Women Italians under Mussolini's fascist regime tended to have two ideas of the Ethiopian woman: she was either uncivilized, primitive, and the member of an inferior race, which made her unattractive (or at the very least, less attractive) by default; or she was a sultry siren, beautiful and exotic, the prototype of a Nubian princess (not unlike the title character of Giuseppe Verdi's opera Aida). Mussolini's paternalistic characterization of Ethiopia as a backward nation which must be colonized by a superior, civilized race gave rise to the coexistence of these seemingly contradictory stereotypes about Ethiopian women. On one hand, notions of racial superiority, which were borne out of Adolf Hitler's obsession with a "master race," influenced Mussolini and the Italian government in their vehement insistence on the segregation of races in the colonies and on racial "purity." Since fascist rhetoric portrayed the Ethiopian women as physically and morally inferior to Italian women, Mussolini's government made several attempts at outlawing miscegenation (interracial sexual and marital relations) in order to preserve the "purity" of the Italian race. Richard Pankhurst writes that in 1936, the Rome correspondent of the News Chronicle reported that Italian childless couples who requested to adopt an Ethiopian child, were denied their request, with the justification that, "the example set by the few Italians who lived in Abyssinia before the war and bred a half-caste race of children must on no account be encouraged." 1 Victor Emmanuel III, the king of Italy, decreed on April 19, 1937, that Italian citizens who partook in conjugal relations with Ethiopians would be "punished with imprisonment for one to five years." 2 Additional laws were passed, calling for the ban of books, songs and pictures which could potentially make Ethiopian women seem attractive to Italian men. For example, the article in the News Chronicle further states that after the Colonial Ministry issued the warning against breeding children of mixed race, "the picture postcards of Abyssinian woman which have been prominently displayed in Roman shop windows have mysteriously disappeared." (3) Another method of Italian fascist to make Ethiopian women seem like a less attractive prospect to Italian soldiers was the introduction of Italian women into the colonies. According to a racial historian of the day, the presence of Italian women in the colonies would make Italian men "flee from contact with the native woman, even less think of making love with her." 4 Farmers who settled in Ethiopia were encouraged to settle there with their wives, and young women who had diplomas but could find neither work nor husbands in Italy set their sights on Ethiopia. However, despite Fascist Italy’s best efforts at portraying Ethiopian women as unattractive and vulgar, the cases of miscegenation did not decrease,and both seemingly paradoxical stereotypes of Ethiopian were able to coexist.Mussolini’s rhetoric against having relations with Ethiopian women, as well as the consequences that such relations entailed, did indeed contribute to the mentality that Ethiopian women were inferior and barbaric, but also contributed to the allure of the Ethiopian woman, since she was, in the eyes of these men, "forbidden fruit." For example, a soldier named Dino Colombara who was stationed in Ethiopia wrote in his diary that the women of a nearby village "stank like hell," although he also admits in the same entry that he would also steal away from the barracks in order to partake in the fulfillment of his sexual desires for these women. 5 This shows that while these two stereotypes may seem mutually exclusive, they actually are strengthened by the existence of one another, as they both dehumanized Ethiopian women, turning them into either objects of derision or lust. Photographs, songs, and various other propaganda, for example, sought to emphasize the exoticism -- and therefore, imply the desirability -- of Ethiopian women. One of the most popular songs of this era, "Faccetta Nera," was such a song; the lyrics praises the beauty of the African woman while simultaneously speaking of the Italian intent to civilize her. 6 Likewise, a poster which was published around the same time and widely circulated in Italy (and eventually, internationally), supposedly representative of the "exotic" and "different" lifestyle of the Africans, depicts the an adolescent Eritrean girl, bare-breasted and bedecked in jewels, in the traditional style of the Afar community. 7Italy was rife with postcards and photographs with eroticized images of Ethiopian women, which offended the sensibilities of the predominately Catholic society, which prided itself on modesty, and at the same time, aroused its curiosity. Ignazio Silone writes, in his book Bread and Wine, of a stall that was erected in a small town, which, for a very small price, young men could look at pictures of "Abyssinian women with bare hairy legs and protruding breasts." 8 As is evident in the song "Faccetta Nera," the poster of the Eritrean girl, and Silone's fictionalized account of provincial Italy, though Italian men certainly looked down upon the women of the colonies, at the same time, their government's prohibition against these women only made them all the more desirable and beautiful to them. These two seemingly oppositional characterizations of Ethiopian women did not prevent Italian men from seeking out these women, and indeed, simply encouraged them in doing so. III. Rape, Prostitution, and Madamismo The two views of Ethiopian women additionally worked in conjunction to justify many crimes committed against them by Italian men. Both dehumanizing portrayals of Ethiopian women -- as a "savage" and a temptress -- made it easy for Italian men to classify her as an insatiably sexual being, which contributed to the belief that these women wanted nothing more than to be "colonized," both politically and in a very physical sense. Rapes, both by soldiers who were simply passing through villages, and by men who had young Ethiopian girls in their employ, were not uncommon. One account from a former maid in colonial Ethiopia states that "All domestic workers were afraid of being sexually attacked... Italian men would rape domestic workers and if they got pregnant they would kick them out and deny any connection with them." 9 However, these Italian men clearly did not classify their actions as rape. This is, in part, due to the colonialists' gross misinterpretation of African social mores. Giulia Barrera states that "a deep misunderstanding of African customs engendered the idea that all Africans enjoyed unlimited sexual freedom." 10 Misinterpretation notwithstanding, one cannot blame the frequent rapes which occurred during this period on a lack of knowledge of the culture alone. Barrera goes on to say that "By exalting the beauty of the continent and simultaneously offering a barbarous caricature of its indigenous populations, colonial images of Africa stimulated a desire for conquest while... [providing] a moral justification for it... thus, the women of Africa were both passionate and available." 11 The ever-present colonial images of the Ethiopian women influenced Italian men in the colonies into thinking that these women wanted to be raped -- and that even if they did not want it, that they deserved it, and that it was somehow even right. Sexual abuse of women in colonial Ethiopia did not simply manifest itself in the form of rape, however. The Italian colonialism in Ethiopia saw a rise in a much more common form of sexual exploitation: prostitution. Every city, and almost every town, had a brothel, which was always an extremely prosperous establishment, despite the fact that only Italian men were allowed to patronize it. 12Under colonial rule, prostitution was the only other occupation that an Ethiopian woman could feasibly hold, besides domestic work -- and perhaps the most lucrative line of work, as well. Though many women were able to earn a secure living because of the popularity of Ethiopian brothels, conditions inside these brothels were deplorable. Routine government inspections were unable to prevent the filthy conditions inside these establishments, and in spite of mandatory medical examinations, many Ethiopian prostitutes (as well as their children by Italian men) nonetheless contracted venereal disease. 13Besides the physical consequences of prostitution, many women additionally had to live with the shame of their occupation. Though the burden of such shame existed in Ethiopia, it was much worse for the women of Eritrea, where chastity is more greatly emphasized. While in Ethiopia, prostitution was an institution that was only accessible to the upper classes, it nonetheless existed prior to the colonial era. However, in Eritrea, being a prostitute is much more shameful, not simply because of Eritrean society's value of virginity, because "prostitution was introduced into Eritrea by colonialism," and under colonialism, which introduced prostitution, the act of sex was cheapened by being made into a commodity. 14 Therefore, an Eritrean woman who was a prostitute under colonial rule had to live with the shame of not only not being chaste, but by being associated with a practice which was brought by their colonizers. The most common form of the sexual use of Ethiopian women during this period, however, is manifested in the institution of madamismo, the illegal cohabitation of an Italian man with an Ethiopian woman. Numerous Italian men took Ethiopian mistresses during their stay in Africa, and while it was widespread among all social classes, it was most common in the cities of Addis Ababa and Asmara. 15 Most of these women, known as madamas, acted as interim wives -- substitutes for the spouses they had left behind in Italy -- and accompanied these men to social functions, shared their beds, and bore their children; in other words, they "provided all the comforts of home." 16 The madama was generally held in higher regard than the prostitute, since her role was so similar to that of any wife, and was additionally more financially secure than a prostitute, since she was usually well cared for by the Italian man with whom she lived. For many Italian men, this was an ideal arrangement: not only did the man in question have a sexual outlet in the absence of his wife, but he could abandon his madama as soon as he returned to Italy, without his family knowing of her existence. However, the institution of madamismo was not met without resentment from many sides: many Ethiopians resented it because not only did these Italian men disturb "the sanctity of their families," 17 but also because many Italian men had no intention of marrying their madamas and were simply looking for little more than an ornament, a beautiful colonial woman they could conquer sexually. Italians, obsessed with preserving the purity of their race, felt that madamismo undermined Italian culture as a whole. However, despite the fervent opposition to rape, prostitution, and madamismo on both the Italian and Ethiopian front, neither side was able to eliminate the relations between Italian men and Ethiopian women -- nor the violence and exploitation committed toward these women -- that occurred during this period. In reality, all the opposition seemed to do was encourage these deeds further. IV. More Than Simply Madamas -- The Resistance of Ethiopian Women Regardless of the prevalent stereotypes of the Ethiopian woman as a savage in need of colonization, as well as the commonness of rape, prostitution, and madamismo, Ethiopian women nevertheless played an active role in resisting their colonizers. Far from being the passive victims of colonialism, who contributed little to history other than being the mistress, prostitute, or victim of some Italian man's cruelty, they fought alongside the men of their country to resist Italian rule and brutality. One way that Ethiopian women were able to help the movement against colonial rule was through espionage. Though it is true that Italian men saw their madamas as simply vessels of their desire, existing only to fulfill their pleasure, many madamas used that fact to their advantage. Women who lived with employees of the Office of Political Affairs, for example, were able to collect classified information to give to Ethiopian resistance leaders. 18 Certain madamas who know that the men who took them as concubines occupied posts of prestige in the Italian government used their sexual wiles in order to influence these men. One notable instance of this is the case of Mulatuah Belaineh, who convinced her Italian lover, Giorgio Pallavicino, to "have her husband and other Ethiopian chiefs freed." 19 Like Mulatuah Belaineh, madamas were able to exert their power, however subtly, to gain protection for their family and friends, as well as to aid the Ethiopian resistance. It is because of this that Ethiopian women were eventually feared by Italian fascists, seen as a threat and a manipulator of an unfortunate vulnerable Italian male. 20 Besides espionage, there were Ethiopian women who were more visibly active in the struggle against colonialism. Women played some of the most important roles, for example, in helping organize groups against fascist rule. Ruth Iyob points out that in Eritrea in the 1940's, many women, most of them former madamas who had children of mixed racial heritage, were "actively engaged in struggles to eliminate fascist laws and secure social equality for themselves and their children." 21 Some women even took their resentment out on their colonizers. During the early part of Italian colonization, Empress Taytu, wife of Emperor Melenik, took part in the war against the invading Italian army and dispatched 3,000 of her own troops to Adwa, resulting in an Ethiopian victory. 22 Another example is that of Sara Gebreyesus, the mistress of the Director of the Governorship of Addis Ababa, who was implicated in an assassination plot whose target was allegedly Rodolfo Graziani, the Viceroy of Ethiopia. 23 There were, additionally, some women who resisted their colonizers simply by refusing to be prostitutes, madamas, or victims. Many Ethiopian women, far from being the sexual object of an Italian man, were able to find happy relationships with Italian men who made good fathers, if not good husbands as well. Despite Mussolini's laws against Italian-Ethiopian intermarriage, "The Italians in Ethiopia loved... [and] took in marriage Ethiopian women. Every big town in Italy has children of these marriages." 24 Many Italian men, far from abandoning their Ethiopian wives and children, recognized their offspring, and even provided for their education and careers. One Italian official even left his business to the son of his Ethiopian wife. 25 Ethiopian women also resisted the colonial mentality in their day-to-day lives. A woman in Eritrea, for example, tells of how she reacted against her Italian neighbor's verbal abuse: Once I had an Italian neighbor... she used to insult Eritreans: "You are beggars! You are poor! You are black!" I found it unbearable. Then one day an Italian came to my house. He was barefoot and in ragged clothes and he was begging... I took him to the door of my Italian neighbour and knocked. I said, "There's someone here to see you... She asked the man where he came from. He said: "Rome." The woman was furious and tired to attack me with the knife. She knew it was my way of showing that it was the Italians who... were beggars. 26 Clearly, Ethiopian and Eritrean women who did not actively participate in political affairs had their own form of resistance: combatting colonialism by refusing to be victims and keeping their pride. It was not simply the spies and the rebels who contributed to the movement against Italian colonialism, but the women who would not let themselves be colonized, even in the most minor of ways. V. Conclusion The women of Ethiopia under Italian fascism did, indeed, have to suffer many forms of hardship. Not only were they required to endure the fetishist stereotypes which portrayed them as uncivilized and yet as mere sexual objects, but they also had to face the results of those portrayals: rape, prostitution, and sexual exploitation that were borne out of that colonialist mentality. However, the Ethiopian woman was not simply a pawn nor a sexual servant of the Italian colonizer, nor did these women simply submissively suffer through the atrocities committed against them. Many found ways to resist their colonizers by using their positions as sexual objects against the same men who sought to keep them submissive. Others spoke out vocally, and even participated in armed resistance. Still others resisted the forces which tried to subjugate them just by maintaining their sense of pride in daily life. Though history has characterized Ethiopian women as helpless, vulnerable victims of an inherently racist ideology, and to an extent, this classification is true, their role in the resistance against that same ideology is far more complex than simply as passive bystanders. Works Cited Barrera, Giulia. "Dangerous Liaisons: Colonial Concubinage in Eritrea, 1890-1941." Evanston, Illinois: Giulia Barrera, 1996. Iyob, Ruth. "Madamismo and Beyond: The Construction of Eritrean Women." New York: Overseas Publishers Association, 2000. Pankhurst, Richard. "Fascist Racial Policies in Ethiopia, 1922-1941." Ethiopia Observer, Vol. 12, 1969. Pankhurst, Rita. "Women of Power in Ethiopian Legend and History." 20 November 2002. Internet Article. "Rastafari Speaks." 20 November 2002. Internet Article. Sbacchi, Alberto. Ethiopia Under Mussolini: Fascism and the Colonial Experience. London: Zed Books, Ltd., 1985. Wilson, Amrit. Women and the Eritrean Revolution: The Challenge Road. Trenton, New Jersey: The Red Sea Press, 1991. back to school projects home